Cipher Mysteries

Diane O’Donovan has asked if Cipher Mysteries can help make researchers aware of her recent work on the Voynich Manuscript. Rather than just host her paper here, I’ve split it up into a number of individual blog posts so that you can leave feedback on each individual section; and have added a commentary connecting each part with existing research.

This first tranche relates to her herbal / botanical interpretation of page f25v…   [NP]

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 f25v: Dracaena. The Voynich Manuscript f25v shows a plant whose form, habit, and implied habitat are indicated, and confirmed by the additional device of the supping ‘dragon’ (Lat: draco).
 

Fig.1a

The genus Dracaena is being depicted here. Dracaena species have been known as ‘dragon trees’ since classical times, the trees’ chief virtue being a naturally extruded (or artificially harvested) [red-coloured] resin known as ‘dragonsblood’. [1]

Fig.1b

Greek and Roman literature recognised the species found in Morocco (Dracaena draco) and Socotra [an archipelago of four islands just off the Horn of Africa - NP] (Dracaena cinnabari). Figs 1b, 1c, 2b [2]. Modern opinion calculates the number of species in the genus Dracaena as about 50, most found in tropical Africa and Asia, with six in China.

Fig.1c

The Voynich Manuscript’s illustrator drew the roots of the plant in f25v forming a mound, apparently within a steep or rocky habitat. As our illustrations show, D. draco and D. cinnabaris do occur in just such environments. The plant’s propensity for lifting the surrounding ground, and for showing bare roots, can be seen in Fig. 2b.

Fig. 2a VMs f25v detail [darkened]. Fig. 2b Dracaena cinnabari (Socotra)

And while f25v might seem to depict a shrub and not a tree, it includes the one specific detail needed to make clear that this is an adult specimen, whose resin is already being harvested. A pale trunk is natural to D. draco, but is only seen in D. cinnabari after the red bark is removed to extract resin. Our Fig. 2b. shows the kind of scars that form in the trunk when the oozing resin (Fig 2c) has been removed by hand.

Fig. 2c: resin oozes from the split bark of D. draco

Removal of its bark brings the appearance of D. cinnabaris closer to that of D. Draco, and we believe the form given this wound in f25v intentionally evokes the appearance of a vulva.

Resin from the Socotran D. Cinnabaris remains a commercial product today, and appears always to have been the type preferred for pharmacy and art. An English phamacopoeia of 1932 notes that it is being imported via India and Zanzibar:

[The resin extracted from the bark of D. cinnabaris] is called Socotrine Dragon’s Blood (imported from Bombay) and ‘Zanzibar drop’ (imported through Zanzibar). [4]

Fig.3a: Dragonsblood from Socotra

The Dracaena is widely associated with preservation and longevity in Socotra and in the Canaries [5] as, pehaps, it once was in Morocco. Socotra’s many Dracaena trees are credited with being thousands of years [6] old; The Guanches of the Canary islands were said still to revere the Dracaena in 1932, and to use “its product for embalming in the fashion of the Egyptians.” [7] The compiler of a European Herbal of 1663, containing what appears to be our earliest printed picture of the Dracaena, may have wished to convey the same idea when he set an embryonic ‘dragon’ in one of its ‘dragon-fruits’ Draconis fructus.

Fig. 3b

D. cinnabaris is unique in having no known fruit nor flowers. Nor does it have the variegated leaves of other species. [8] For that reason, and for its fame, Socotra’s D. cinnabari seems the most obvious choice for the illustration in the Voynich Manuscript page f25v. D. draco bears both fruit and flowers. (Fig 1c and Fig 4a) (Because D. cinnabari produces neither, its means of reproduction is still unknown).

Fig. 4a

One would normally settle, at this stage, for saying that the species shown in f25v is indeterminate, but once more the inclusion of the ‘dragon’ may be designed to clarify the matter.

That dragon has its tail ending in a terminal drawn in the same way that its feet are; all five extremities ending in a leaf-shape. The “leaf-foot” lizard is a recognized genus, found in many regions and called Hemidactylus. Six species of Hemidactylus are known in Socotra:

Socotra [has 22 endemic species out of the 25 known]. Geckos are the most represented reptiles in the island: 6 species belong to the Semaphore geckos (genus Pristurus), 6 to the genus Hemidactylus and 2 to the endemic [9] genus Haemodracon; and there are also other lizards, snakes and a chameleon. They are everywhere, from the high mountains of Haggeher to the desert lowland of the south coast, basking on tree branches as on nearly every rock around – and Socotra is a rocky place indeed! -. And even underground: there are, in fact, five worm-like reptiles, suited to a completely ctonian life. Although the herpetofauna of the island is considered to be relatively well known by scientists, new species have been described up to a few years ago and still most aspects of their life-history remain unknown. [10]

Fig. 4b: Pristurus. Fig. 4c: Hemidactylus.

Shown in Figs 4b and 4c are specimens of Pristurus and Hemidactylus respectively. Note the raised eye-ridges of the latter, which might suggest incipient horns.

Socotra’s Haemodracon is so named because of its extraordinary devotion to the island’s dragonsblood trees. And as our figure shows, this haemodracon might appear (to the casual observer) to be using its tail as an extra foot: Fig.5a The genus haemodracon [giant Socotran gecko] exists nowhere else in the world but Socotra, the two species being H. riebeckii and H. trachyrhinus. [11]

Haemodracon riebeckii:
“Endemic genus and species. Largest nocturnal gecko on the island, frequently found associated with Dracaena trees or found in rock holes.”

 

Fig. 5a

The individual shown in our Fig.5a is – somewhat inconveniently – out and about in daylight and has chosen this day to climb another of the island’s endemic species. [12] Adenium obsesum socotranum is affected giantism, leading to its popular description of ‘bottle tree’ for it stores water, like the baobab. Seen from a distance, especially in silhouette after sunset, the hundreds of bottle trees on Socotra’s hills certainly do resemble horned, pot-bellied dragons watching over the people below. Fig. 5b

Fig. 5b

Summarising Dracaena’s uses:

• Within Socotra it is used to treat dysentery and burns, and in fastening loose teeth. We are told the Romans used it as an antiseptic, and that it was specially valued by gladiators. Such was the fame of ‘dragonsblood’ that it [13] is said to be mentioned in the German saga of Siegfried. [14]
• Cooked over an open fire and made into balls, the sap-resin seems always to have been traded through middlemen into Europe, where it was also used to stain glass and marble, to give the reddish lustre to gold, and as an external medicine. In the east it was, and is, further used as a cosmetic, and as a pigment in paint for pottery-decoration.
• Minim came to be the red ink used in manuscripts, indicating the beginning and end, or the holy word, but was still sometimes termed ‘dragonsblood’ from an older tradition in which dragonsblood was the colour and material used to represent immortal figures. This was particularly true in astronomical works, where the colour (often as vermillion) marked the stars composing a figure. The habit derives from an older belief that the stars are blood of an immortal kind, oozing from heaven’s tree to form and preserve that celestial creature for all eternity. An allusion to this idea of stars as blood occurs in Heliodorus’ Ethiopian Tale. Homer’s Iliad – as Florence Woods rightly recognised – is a star-saga, its heroes’ astronomical identity given by the meticulous placement of each man’s wounds.

Fig. 6b

Legend has it that the world’s first people lived on an island in the east sea, sometimes identified with Ceylon, or with Socotra, which was called Dioscorides by the Greeks, and still known as the island of Bliss in the fifteenth century. Bosch dresses Christ in red, has him as priest-physician and places Adam and Eve before a Dracaena in his picture of the Paradise.

Fig. 6a

The true ‘first people’ from the east sea may have been kin to those we know as Phoenicians, for another name by which D. cinnabaris is known is the Phoenix tree – and Herodotus mentions that the Phoenicians’ original home was somewhere in the ‘red sea.’

(c) Diane O’Donovan, December 2009.

Footnotes:-

1. As we infer from the existence of a pre-classical myth describing the relationship of the tree, the dragon, its blood and the theme of the aboriginal garden, immortality and the stars. On which see Graves, R., The Greek Myths (the eleventh labour of Hercules). Typhon was the sea-god of one or more pre-Hellenic peoples.
2. current classifications for the Dracaena are used throughout the present article. We follow the system and classifications of the Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. For the Dracaena see:  Marrero, A., Alemeida, R.,et.al., (1998) ‘New species of the Wild dragon tree, Dracaena  (Dracenaceae) from Gran Canaria and its taxonomic and biogeographic implications’.   Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, Volume 128 Issue 3, Pages 291 – 314.  The abstract includes:   “The arborescent taxa of Dracaena which form the dragon tree group comprise five species found in Macaronesia, Morocco (D. draco), East Africa (D. ombet, D. schizantha), Arabia (D. serrulata) and the island of Socotra (D. cinnabari). A new species of dragon tree, Dracaena tamaranae A. Marrero, R. S. Almeida & M. Gonzalez-Martin, is described from Gran Canaria, Canary Islands. This new species differs from D. draco, the only other Dracaena species currently known in Macaronesia, in having a growth form and inflorescence type and leaves more similar to the East African and Arabian species of Dracaena. In contrast, D. draco appears to be related to D. cinnabari. In this paper, we also present a study of the taxonomy, habitat and ecology of all the species of the dragon tree group. These are found in thermo-sclerophyllous plant communities of tropical-subtropical regions which are rather xerophilous and have a rainfall range of 200–500 mm. Our study indicates two independent colonization events for Dracaena in Macaronesia. Published Online: 28 Jun 2008      © 2009 The Linnean Society of London
3.  
4. The same text mentions other species including “ Dracaena terminalis, or Chinese Colli, yields ‘Chinese Dragon’s Blood’, used in China for its famous red varnish. In some countries a syrup, yielding sugar, is made from the roots (called Tii roots). An intoxicating drink can be made from it, and it has also been used in dysentery and diarrhoea, and as a diaphoretic”.
   Socotra’s dragonsblood is prepared simply by heating the resin over an open fire, but the methods used to create it from other species are explained by an author writing in the early nineteenth century. See, William Marsden, The History of Sumatra: Containing An Account Of The Government, Laws, Customs And Manners Of The Native Inhabitants. (1811) Available online at www.gutenberg.org/files/16768/16768-h/16768-h.htm#ch-07 .
5. Populations totalling a few hundred D. draco trees are found on five of the seven Canary Islands, in addition to two individuals on Madeira Island, Portugal and populations in Cape Verde, Morocco and about 50 – 80 trees on the Azorean Islands, particularly on Ilha das Flores … The dragon tree is found in dry forests. On Madeira and in the Azores, the plant grows in steep coastal cliffs usually below 200 m altitude. In the Canaries, it can be found in inaccessible cliffs from 100 – 600 m altitude, and in Morocco and Cabo Verde it grows high in the mountains.
6. A claim which cannot be tested by dendochronology since the spongy bark of the Dracaena does not form rings, nor does it form scales like most other Dracaena.
7. The Egyptian verb ‘to embalm’ meant literally ‘to redden’
8. In passing we note that the Javanese species of Dracaena, with its brilliant, alternate, variegation may be the subject of Voynich f3r.
9. An endemism is a species found no where else in the world.
10. http://www.herpfolio.net/category/socotra/
11. See www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15777242#478  and others listed at www.eol.org/pages/83792
12. Adenium obsesum socotranum (Vierh.) Lavranos). The Adenium comes into leaf in winter, drops its leaves in summer and then comes into flower; it is one of the shrubs that does not need rain to flower.
13. Although the ref may be to the mineral Cinnabar. Wikipedia contains an article surveying the history and uses for dragonsblood. The Dragon tree in the Bosch painting has been noted by numerous other authors.
14. www.rtvslo.si/socotra/eng.htm . I cannot vouch for this source. 

 

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Nick Pelling adds:…

People have for decades (if not centuries) attempted to identify the plants and animals in the VMs. In Ethel Voynich’s list of attempted identifications, f25v is linked with plantago (perhaps because of its connection with herbal medicine, as it was listed in the 10th century “Nine Herbs Charm”, for example), while Edith Sherwood links f25v with woad (isatis tinctoria), though neither seems to have an explanation for the presence of the dragon.

And as far as the f25v ‘dragon’ goes, Sergio Toresella recalled seeing a similar small dragon in a medieval herbal held in Paris: while the recent German “De Aqua” Voynich theorist wondered whether the dragon was basiliscus plumifrons, and pointed (part #11, 3:29) to a parallel with the plant dracontea from a reasonably similar-looking manuscript. Incidentally, I’d be very interested to see Karen Reeds’ (1991) “Botany in Medieval and Renaissance Universities”, which devotes pp.145-162 to the example of dracontea.

Hence it should surprise nobody that Diane’s identification of f25v as the Dracaena genus is not in itself novel. Long-time Voynich botany researcher Dana Scott first proposed it in 2002 (this is the earliest reference to it in the list archives I could find): he noted the same broad connection between the dragon and “dragonsblood’ (sanguis draconis), remarking…

My impression is clearly that the scribe of the VMS was well educated in ‘natural philosophy’, had a very good understanding of plants, and selected specimens for this manuscript with care. I believe that this match to Dracaena strengthens provides strength for arguments against suggestions that the document may be a hoax. While the leaf color pattern/design looks pretty good in Dracaena massangeana, further examination/investigation will be required to determine a best choice for the species.

Clearly, Diane has tried (just as Dana suggested) to take this connection up to the next level, which is thoroughly laudable. Given that ‘dragonsblood’ was apparently well known in medieval times, the conclusion that f25v does indeed somehow refer to Dracaena does indeed seem strong (though perhaps not quite as certain as it could be).

However, as with all historical evidence, the direction you then decide to run with it is a matter for choice. Even though it will be fascinating to see how well Diane manages to sustain and support her larger-scale argument that the VMs contains direct visual references to the flora and fauna of Socotra, I’d personally take quite a different path forward from here, by looking at the 15th/16th century reception of Dracaena, starting with Hieronymus Bosch’s (1503-1504) triptych “Garden of Earthly Delights” (part of whose left panel Diane discusses near the end).

Interestingly, Bosch’s cat-and-mouse motif is strongly reminiscent of Wilfrid Voynich’s own cat-and-mouse motif, but which he actually appropriated from the Sessa printing family of Venice - as noted by Jean-Yves Artero, this appears in a 1496 incunabulum printed by Giovanni Battista Sessa.  Bosch apparently drew many/most of the exotic animals (giraffe, etc) from the verbal descriptions in Cyriacus of Ancona‘s (1391-1453/1455) travel letters (his Commentarii), so it seems likely to me that this may well have been the source for the Dracaena too. Perhaps someone who has read Hans Belting’s (2005) ”Garden of Earthly Delights” will be able to say more about this? Or perhaps someone who has gone through (say) the I Tatti Renaissance Library’s “Cyriac of Ancona: Later Travels” (2003) can comment?

What is also a little curious is that Cyriacus is (according to this post) ever eager to drop in mentions of sea-nymphs / water-nymphs, which might seem eerily familiar to many Voynich Manuscript researchers…

PS: I’d also be interested to know if anyone has read this 1998 article by Cristolfini and Mossetti, which may well give a yet different angle on sanguis draconis…